2016. Vol. 4, no. 2

THE COMBINATION OF NOMADIC AND HIERARCHIC
PRINCIPLES WITHIN THE STATE ORGANIZATION
IN THE GOLDEN HORDE[1]

R.S. Khakimov

Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation
E-mail: history@tataroved.ru

On the one hand, the state system of the Golden Horde inherits a number of features from the former political culture of the Turkic states. On the other hand, it brings fundamental changes that determine the characteristics of the Eurasian empire. We introduce the concept of zero-point of history to explain periodization of Tatar history. In the history, the smooth flow of events breaks near the bifurcation point, when society enters into an unstable phase and a radical dismantling of social structures begins. Elements of the past remain as invariants. But they find themselves in the new assembly, which cannot be reduced to the same combinations of social elements. This is essentially new historical phase, in which one coordinate system of space-time is replaced by another and history launches a new countdown.

The Golden Horde is the pinnacle of a nomadic civilization. Its prosperity was based on metallurgy, agriculture, and trade. Moreover, its main export was corn. Hundreds of cities and seaports were built in the Golden Horde, which distinguishes it from the Great Steppe. At the same time, despite the increase in sedentary population, the Golden Horde civilization retained its nomadic mentality. Chinese or European models of governance were basically impossible due to the presence of nomadic economy: it was necessary to control precisely the clans occupying certain territories. Clans were able to ensure both the collection of taxes from the mobile population and training of soldiers for the army. The clan system gave stability in the conditions of semi-nomadic life, while also allowing to control the sedentary population. The Golden Horde was a highly developed State with a strong financial system, with the state apparatus divided into two parts, one of which was associated with control of the nomadic population, and the other with the sedentary one.

Territory, state structures, traditions, and political culture of the Golden Horde became the basis of the Russian Empire. To the Horde legacy the Orthodox faith was added, borrowed from Byzantium, which together determined the nature of Russia.

Keywords: political and cultural legacy of the Turkic states, Golden Horde, Zero point of history, pinnacle of the nomadic civilization, foundations of the Russian Empire.

For citation: Khakimov R.S. The Combination of Nomadic and Hierarchic Principles within the State Organization in the Golden Horde. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 246–255.

* An earlier version of this paper was presented to the International Conference “The Golden Horde in a Global Perspective: Imperial Strategies”, 7 May, 2015, Leiden University. English translation of the original Russian text by Gulnaz Sibgatullina (Ph.D. student, Leiden University).

About the author: Raphael S. Khakimov – Dr. Sci. (History), Academician of AS RT, Vice-president of AS RT, Director, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences  (5 entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014, Russian Federation). E-mail: history@tataroved.ru

Received   April 10, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 6, 2016

GOLDEN HORDE TOWN (ULUSES WEST OF THE DON).
TO A QUESTION OF THE APPEARANCE AND LOCALIZATION

B.V. Cherkas

Institute of History of Ukraine, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Kiev 01001, Ukraine
E-mail: borys_ch@mail.ru

History of the Golden Horde towns represents one of the unique and still mysterious pages of history. First of all, this applies to the stationary settlements. Most of these settlements are known due to archaeological research. Consequently, it is difficult to determine, when it refers to the “town” or to the “village”. Chronologically, the Golden Horde settlements can be divided into two groups: those that existed before the Mongol conquest and were incorporated into the empire, and those that were built under the new Tatar government. The Mongol conquests were not aimed at the complete destruction of captured peoples. Like any other state, the Mongol Empire was in need of constant revenue for its existence. Therefore, during an invasion the Mongols destroyed towns guided only by political or military necessity. Accordingly, most of the settlements continued their existence. So actually, as a result of the conquest, the Chinggisid State contained a large number of towns and villages. Compared with settled regions open, the steppe never was an urbanized area. But during the Golden Horde period, the steppe was covered with large quantity of human settlements that we call “towns”. There were two reasons for this phenomenon. Firstly, a natural component when life itself forced to build settlements. And secondly, the state policy aimed at establishing permanent settlements.

The first reason is based on such elements. It was the presence of a powerful branching Yam (postal) system that contributed to the formation of settelments along postal routes. There a traveler could change horses and rest, get water and food, repair trucks, etc. Thereby, construction of housing facilities for animals, stores, religious buildings, wells, craft workshops on these way stations was a matter of time. Second component was represented by natural environment and climate change. Many rivers flows along the Ukrainian steppe, including such large ones as the Danube, Dniester, Southern Bug, Dnieper, Siverskyi Donets. Accordingly, these rivers could be crossed in certain places only. That, in turn, made it necessary for the existence of settlements there. Also, deep snow in the Ukrainian steppe significantly impedes grazing, and during some winters it generally makes it impossible. This fact forced the nomads to establish stationary settlements and corresponding feed stocks. In the 14^th century began a large-scale climatic cooling. This required from the steppe inhabitants as well to create safe shelters for a period of frost.

Second reason based on the management policy established by Chinggis Khan. He was first to found a city that became the center of authority. Threads of control across the state went out from them. Accordingly, the nobles followed the ruler’s example and established the regional centers of power as well.

Keywords: Yam, settlements, Golden Horde, town, village, Chinggisid State.

For citation: Cherkas B.V. Golden Horde Town (Uluses West of the Don).To a Question of the Appearance and Localization. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 256–271.

About the author: Boris V. Cherkas – Dr. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow, Institute of History of Ukraine, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (4, Grushevsky Str., Kiev 01001, Ukraine). E-mail: borys_ch@mail.ru

Received  April 4, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 10, 2016

FROM BATU TO JANYBEK: MILITARY CONFLICTS
OF THE ULUS OF JOCHI WITH POLAND AND HUNGARY (1)

R. Hautala ¹ ^, ²

¹ Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation

² University of Oulu
Oulu 90014, Finland
E-mail: virisequisque@hotmail.com

The author of this article examines a number of military conflicts between the ulus of Jochi and both Hungary and Poland followed the first invasion of the Tatars in these lands in 1241. For the most part, the author’s analysis is based on information of synchronous Latin sources in comparison with information contained in Russian and Mamluk chronicles. In addition to the Hungarian, Polish, and German chronicles, the author resorts to the use of the contents of the papal letters to Eastern Europe, which provide both the most reliable information about military conflicts and information on the Papal Curia’s measures to improve the defense of eastern borders of the Latin world from the Tatar raids.

The article examines the political events in chronological order, according to the reigns of the Jochid rulers. During the reign of Batu, Latin sources indicate extreme concern about the possible resumption of the western expansion of the Tatars in spite of the fact that, in reality, Tatar military activity on the eastern borders of Catholic Europe had an extremely minor character. On the contrary, during the reign of Berke, Tatars carried a very destructive raid on Lesser Poland. However, further Tatar expansion was interrupted by an unexpected collapse of the Mongol Empire. The subsequent reign of khan Mengu-Timur was distinguished with relative tension with the Catholic Europe, but the actual attack on Hungary and Poland took place only under the khans Tuda-Mengu and Tula-Buga.

Later, under the khans Tokhta and Uzbek, the tension between the Golden Horde and Catholic Europe weakened considerably, which, in particular, allowed the beginning of the Hungarian territorial expansion into Moldova. However, the end of the reign of Uzbek Khan was characterized by a sharp deterioration of relations between the Golden Horde and Poland, which was associated with the beginning of the war of Galician succession. Analysis of the course of this war shows the apparent weakening of the influence of the Golden Horde in the former Galicia-Volyn principality, which contributed to the further expansion of Poland and Lithuania on the territory of modern Ukraine.

Keywords: Golden Horde, Catholic Europe in the Middle Ages, Tatar invasions, Papal Curia, anti-Tatar Crusades, Latin sources.

For citation: Hautala R. From Batu to Janybek: Military Conflicts of the Ulus of Jochi with Poland and Hungary (1). Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 272–313.

About the author: Roman Hautala – Ph.D. (History), Senior Research Fellow, Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences (5 entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014, Russian Federation); Postdoctoral researcher, Historical branch at the Faculty of Humainites, University of Oulu (1, Pentti Kaiteran Str., Oulu 90014, Finland). E-mail: virisequisque@hotmail.com

Received  March 31, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 5, 2016

RUBICON OF THE GOLDEN HORDE

T.F. Khaydarov

Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation
E-mail: timkh2000@yandex.ru

The article deals with the natural-climatic and environmental factors in the history of the Golden Horde. From the very beginning of its existence the Jochid Ulus proved to be very dependent on the environment. Its existence as a major military and political union and an important element of the global economic system directly depended on recreational potential of the Lower Volga steppe biome in the recovery of the steppe’s original form. This could worsen the ecological situation both because of the active human impact on the ecology of the region, and as a consequence of climate change. Prudent economic policy of the Horde rulers during the favorable natural and climatic period allowed the Jochid ulus to become in the shortest time the center of attraction in the Black Sea-Caspian region.

New Horde towns played a major role in this process. They represented mostly the enlarged nomadic camps with few fixed structures. Even after the development of economic and cultural relations along the Silk Road in the late 13^th century and the subsequent economic recovery of the ancient urban centers in Central Asia, the Crimean and Bulgar uluses, new Horde towns of the Lower and Middle Volga regions and Western Siberia continued to bear the imprint of the nomadic settlements at a new stage. At the same time, signs of active construction of permanent structures emerged in these towns. Taking into account the urban achievements of eastern countries, these towns gradually became places of attraction for the urban districts and surrounding areas.

The sharp level change of the Caspian, Azov and Aral Seas began in 1320. Along with an increase in seismic activity and climate instability, this change became a detonator of the catastrophic consequences for the Golden Horde. The epidemic (“Black Death”), demographic (famine) and political-military (“Great zamyatnya”) factors represented the Rubicon that the Jochid ulus could not cross. At the same time, remaining Golden Horde towns in the Crimean and Bulgar uluses had been able to become the centers of formation of a new political elite of the post-Horde Tatars.

Keywords: ulus of Jochi, natural and climatic features of the Lower Volga region, Golden Horde towns, Caspian Sea level, Great Silk Road, longstanding drought, widespread famine, “Black Death”.

For citation: Khaydarov T.F. Rubicon of the Golden Horde. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 314–335.

About the author: Timur F. Khaydarov – Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow, Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences (5entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014, Russian Federation). E-mail: timkh2000@yandex.ru

Received  April 24, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 23, 2016

LATIN SOURCES ON THE RELIGIOUS SITUATION IN THE GOLDEN HORDE
IN THE EARLY REIGN OF UZBEK KHAN*

R. Hautala ¹ ^, ²

¹ Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation

² University of Oulu
Oulu 90014, Finland
E-mail: virisequisque@hotmail.com

The author of this article presents the content of selected Latin sources on the Franciscan missionary activity on the territory of the Golden Horde in the 14^th century. These sources are of particular interest for the study of the history of the ulus of Jochi since they were written within the Golden Horde during the reign of khan Uzbek (1312–1341). In particular, these sources contain valuable information about religious policy of the rulers of the ulus of Jochi, which allows us to re-evaluate the process of the spread of Islam in the Golden Horde and the degree of Islamization of nomads during the reign of khan Uzbek.

First, the author presents the yarlyk that khan Uzbek granted to the Minorites of Kaffa in 1314. The author points to specific conformity of its content with well-known yarlyks granted by the Golden Horde khans to the metropolitans of the Orthodox Church of Rus’. This yarlyk of Uzbek is essential for clarifying the nature of Uzbek’s religious policy in the initial period of his reign. Its information allows us to review the accuracy of the information contained in the well-known Muslim sources.

Further, the author points to the importance of the information contained in a later letter by the Franciscans of Caffa, sent by them to the West in 1323. This letter mentions the substantial proselytizing successes of the Franciscans and, more importantly, indicates that Uzbek’s administration did not obstruct the Minorites’ missionary activities deployed by them among the nomads of the ulus of Jochi.

At the end of the article, the author pays attention to frequent conflicts between the Catholics and Muslim residents of the Golden Horde and focuses on the information of the Latin sources, which allows us to determine the reasons for these conflicts.

Keywords: history of the Golden Horde, Islamization of the nomads, external and internal written sources, Latin sources, Franciscan missionary work among the nomads.

For citation: Hautala R. Latin Sources on the Religious Situation in the Golden Horde in the Early Reign of Uzbek Khan. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 336–346.

About the author: Roman Hautala – Ph.D. (History), Senior Research Fellow, Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences (5 entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014, Russian Federation); Postdoctoral researcher, Historical branch at the Faculty of Humainites, University of Oulu (1, Pentti Kaiteran Str., Oulu 90014, Finland). E-mail: virisequisque@hotmail.com

* An earlier version of this paper was presented to the International Workshop “The Golden Horde in a Global Perspective: Imperial Strategies”, May 7, 2015, at the Leiden University.

Received  April 5, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 2, 2016

TO THE QUESTION ABOUT THE REASONS FOR THE ATTACK
OF THE CRIMEAN KHAN MENGLI GIRAY AGAINST KIEV (1482)
AND THE BREACH OF THE PEACE WITH POLISH KING CASIMIR IV JAGIELLON (ACCORDING TO THE GENOESE DOCUMENTS)

V.P. Gulevich

Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine
Kiev 01008, Ukraine
E-mail: gulevych_v@ukr.net

Contemporary researchers consider it as a proven fact that Grand Prince of Moscow Ivan III instigated the attack of the Crimean khan Mengli Giray against Kiev in 1482. Italian documents of 1480s allow us to provide an alternative explanation for these events. After the Ottoman conquest of Caffa in 1475 the Genoeses planned to recover their colony. For this purpose they sent their emissaries to Mengli Giray who were to both examine the situation in Crimea and incite the khan for an uprising in Caffa against Turkish rule. To secure the success of their plan they also planned to persuade the Polish king Casimir Jagiellon to participate in the uprising. Polish ruler approved a plan in words, but did not provide any practical support. This, in turn, prompted Mengli Giray to attack on Kiev.

Purpose of the study: to find out the reasons for the Tatar attack against Kiev in 1482.

Objective: to establish the circumstances that led to the attack on Kiev in 1482 and the rupture of peaceful relations between Mengli Giray and Casimir IV.

Novelty of the study: based on the little-known sources the author for the first time provides an alternative explanation for the rupture of peaceful relations between Mengli Giray and Casimir IV.

Keywords: 1481–1482, Crimean Khanate, Meñli I Giray khan, Ottoman Empire, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Kyiv, Genoa, political history.

For citation: Gulevich V.P. To the Question about the Reasons for the Attack of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray against Kiev (1482) and the Breach of the Peace with Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon (according to the Genoese documents). Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 347–359.

About the author: Vladislav P. Gulevich – MA (History), Chief Adviser, Office for Relations with the Local Government and the Local Authorities to the Staff of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine  (5, M. Grushevsky Str., Kiev 01008, Ukraine). E-mail: gulevych_v@ukr.net

Received  April 24, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 12, 2016

SYMBOLS OF POWER IN THE SOURCES
ON THE HISTORY OF TYUMEN KHANATE

D.N. Maslyuzhenko

Kurgan State University
Kurgan 640669, Russian Federation
E-mail: denmas13@yandex.ru

Leaders of all medieval States of the Great Steppes had a specific set of state power symbols. The possession of those symbols was inseparable from the actual possession of the authority. An extensive list of such potestaric symbols was revealed for the ulus of Jochi (the Golden Horde). However, identification of these symbols for state formations of the post-Horde world is rather difficult due to the nature of the sources, especially if we are talking about the Northern (Siberian) periphery of the territory.

The authors identified the State seals of different shapes and the so-called “Siberian Crown” (khan Kuchum’s battle helmet of Oriental production) as such items belonging to the Siberian Khanate during the reign of khans Murtaza and his sons, Ahmad and Giray Kuchum. Perhaps, a drum was used in court rituals. Besides, there was the Khan’s lineage Tamga, which could be used as an analogue of seals, especially in the reign of Kuchum descendants.

Identification of such symbols was not carried out earlier for the Shibanids of earlier times, who ruled in the Tyumen Khanate. Written sources indicate that the first Tyumen khan Abu-l-Khair possessed the throne, the Royal yurt and caftan as the symbols of his power. The last two items are clearly linked to the Mongolian or Horde traditions of power, characteristic for many steppe regions. In contrast, the Tyumen throne was relatively new attribute of the local rulers. For this reason, particular importance for Tyumen dynasts had the throne of the rulers of the ulus of Jochi, which is referred to in the sources as “the high seat (throne, chair) of Sain Khan” – that is, the throne of Batu khan. Apparently, we are talking about a lightweight handheld seat that really could be associated with the Horde rulers. At various times, it was captured together with nomadic camp (Orda-Bazar) of the Great Ahmad Horde by khans Abu-l-Khair and Ibrahim (Ibak). A possession of this subject played a significant role in the political games and the claims of the Shibanids in the 15^th century.

Keywords: Symbols of power, Tyumen Khanate, Siberian Khanate.

For citation: Maslyuzhenko D.N. Symbols of Power in the Sources on the History of Tyumen Khanate. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 360–368.

About the author: Denis N. Maslyuzhenko – Cand. Sci. (History), Associate Professor, Dean of the Historical Faculty, Kurgan State University (25, Gogol Str., Kurgan 640669, Russian Federation). E-mail: denmas13@yandex.ru

Received  March 31, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 2, 2016

THE NOGAY HORDE IN THE SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
AT THE TURN OF THE 15^TH–16^TH CENTURIES

M.V. Moiseev

Museum of Moscow
Moscow 119021, Russian Federation
E-mail: maksi-moisee@yandex.ru

The article is devoted to the study of foreign policy of the Nogai Horde as well as to its attempts to join the system of international relations of the Western Desht. The author identified the main geopolitical interests of the Manghyt Yurt. Struggle against the Great Horde was a significant factor in the formation of international relations of the Western Desht. It turned out to be the most important factor that both cemented political alliances in the region and ensured their viability. However, we should point out the possibility of coalition configurations’ changing, bearing in mind that the interests of the Nogai Horde, that is of a new player, were not always taken into account. In 1493, such an attempt was undertaken by Mirza Musa, but since he had encountered resistance, this attempt was unsuccessful.

Reliance on the Siberian Yurt played a much larger role for the Nogai claims. Using the Siberian Chinggisids, the Nogais managed to legitimize their claims to the Kazan khanate. Particularly successful were the events in 1496. However, these events had shown the lack of resources of the Nogai Horde to fight with the Russian government and eventually led to the restriction of the Nogai policy interests by the marriage diplomacy. The Nogai-Crimean confrontation and struggle for control over the Volga crossings determined the nature of international relations in the Western Desht and became a major geopolitical factor in the region after the defeat of the Great Horde. However, for the turn of the 15^th–16^th centuries the Crimean-Nogai confrontation had not yet become irreversible. In this struggle a new challenge faced the Nogais: they had to take hold of the Volga transports and Haji-Tarkhan for effective control over the right bank of the Volga. This logic of events would lead to a new great war in the Western Desht, in which the Nogai Horde was to play a leading role. However the Kazakh invasion dramatically altered the balance of power and changed the vector of international relations, in which the confrontation of the Russian State and the Crimean Khanate began to play a major role. In turn, khan Qasim died in 1521 and the Nogais began to expel the Kazakhs. This led to the fact that the Nogai Horde returned into the vortex of international relations, where the Manghyt Yurt was again forced to find its place.

Keywords: Nogai Hord, regional system of international relations, Kazan khanate, Crimean khanate, Great Horde, Russian state.

For citation: Moiseev M.V. The Nogay Horde in the System of International Relations at the turn of the 15^th–16^th centuries. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 369–384.

About the author: Maksim V. Moiseev – Cand. Sci. (History), Head of sector of the Moscow city museum, Museum of Archaeology of Moscow (2, Zubovskiy av., Moscow 119021, Russian Federation). E-mail: maksi-moisee@yandex.ru

Received  April 15, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 12, 2016

 THE TATAR TSAREVITCHES IN THE GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA
(15^TH–18^TH CENTURIES)

S.V. Dumin ¹ ^, ²

¹ Russian Federation of Genealogy
Moscow 111250, Russian Federation

² Assembly of the Russian Nobility
Moscow 109028, Russian Federation
E-mail: stanislaw.dumin@yandex.ru

The article is devoted to the genealogy of the three families of the Tatar tsarevitches (Soltans), settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15^th or early 16^th century. The first of these (extinct until the mid 16^th century) descended from “tsarevitch Sihdohman from Perekop” (in all probability, from khan Sidi Ahmed). The second, tsarevitches Ostrynsky (extinct in the early 17^th century), were descendants of the Crimean Giray dynasty. The third, ”tsarevitches Zavolzhsky”, called later “tsarevitches Punsky”, were the descendants of Halleck-Soltan, nephew of the last khan of the Great Horde Shah Ahmat (Sheikh Ahmed) and they still existed in the first half of the 18^th century. At the beginning of the 16^th century these tsarevitches maintained their contacst with the Great Horde and Crimea and played some role in the diplomatic relations of the Grand Duchy and Tatar khanates. Later, they turned into ordinary military landowners, though they occupied the honored place in the Lithuanian Tatar aristocracy and retained their traditional title of tsarevitches (though often they also titled princes, like other noble Tatars).

Keywords: Lithuanian Tatars, Chinggisids (Jochids), tsarevitches (soltans), Ostrynski, Punsky, Shah Ahmat (Sheikh Ahmed), Meghli-Giray, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Great Horde, Crimean Khanate.

For citation: Dumin S.V. The Tatar Tsarevitches in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (15^th–18^th centuries). Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 385–419.

About the autor: Stanislav V. Dumin – Cand. Sci. (History), President, Russian Federation of Genealogy (Post Box 54, Moscow111250, Russian Federation); Vice-President and Chief Herald, Assembly of the Russian Nobility (8, 2A str., Pokrovsky avenue, Moscow 109028, Russian Federation). E-mail: stanislaw.dumin@yandex.ru

Received  April 26, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 13,  2016

THE TERM OF THE “TATAR-MONGOLS/MONGOL-TATARS”:
THE ETHNIC OR POLITICAL CONCEPT?
AN EXPERIENCE OF THE SOURCE STUDY AND CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

D.M. Iskhakov

Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation
E-mail: monitoring_vkt@mail.ru

In recent years, researchers have begun to pay greater attention to the ethnic aspects of the Great Mongolian State’s formation at the turn of the 12^th–13^th centuries. However, a key problem of this period still remains controversial. This problem is related to the definition of ethnicity of the Tatar and other kindred clans. This article analyzes the problem in order to achieve a clear understanding of the ethnic situation in Central Asia during the formation of Eke Mongol Ulus. As a result of consideration of historiographical approaches to ethnic nomenclature, which the Mongolian and Chinese sources used with respect to the Turkic and Mongolian groups that settled in this area, the author is inclined to the view of Turkish ethnicity of the Tatars and some other (Naimans, Merkits) clans known by source, whom Chinggis Khan faced in the process of formation of the “people of the Mongols”. At the same time, the author establishes a historical connection between the pre-Mongol Tartars and Kimak and Uyghur khaganates. In particular, he reveals their affiliation to the elite, “royal” layers of these Turkic states. In turn, this allows us to reveal the presence of a Tatar component among the eastern Kipchak-Kimaks (Yemeks) with close ties with the last dynasty of Khwarezm shahs. On the basis of a detailed and comprehensive review of material, the author points to the need for a new understanding of the term “Mongol-Tatars”. This term was not imposed by the Chinese officials, but it was a meaningful politonym marking a two-part (Turkic (Tatar) – Mongol) nature of the “people” who established the Great Mongol Empire. The author informs in his article about his plans to consider in detail this issue in relation to the ulus of Jochi.

Keywords: Mongols, Mongol-Tatars, Tatars, Kimaks, Uighurs, Naimans, Merkits, Medieval Tatar ethnos, Turkic (Tatar) – Mongol period of history.

For citation: Iskhakov D.M. The Term of the “Tatar-Mongols/Mongol-Tatars”: The Ethnic or Political Concept? An Experience of the Source Study and Conceptual Analysis. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 420–442.

About the author: Damir M. Iskhakov – Dr. Sci. (History), Chief Research Fellow, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences (5 entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014, Russian Federation). E-mail: monitoring_vkt@mail.ru

Received  April 7, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 7, 2016

QALANDAR-NAME. CHAPTER 8. “PRAISES TO FOUR IMAMS”*

Abu Bakr Qalandar

M.R. Shamsimukhametova

Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation
E-mail: milya-ismagilova@yandex.ru

D.A. Shagaviev

Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation
E-mail: saiddamir@mail.ru

M.M. Yakubovich

National University “Ostrog Akademy”
Ostrog 35800, Ukraine
E-mail: nitishini@gmail.com

Presented fragment is the next part of the translation of the medieval poetic text “Qalandar-name” written by Abu Bakr Qalandar, the Sufi scholar from Crimea. This Chapter is devoted to praises to four founders of schools of islamic law (madhhab): an-Numan Abu Hanifa, Mukhammad ash-Shafii, Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Malik ibn Anas. Incorrect order of praises of Imams (Ibn Malik is mentioned after other three imams) shows that author of source belongs to Shafii madhhab.

The author mentions the virtues of these imams, making the main emphasis on their knowledge. Reviewing their accomplishments author mentions “hundred usul”, “Mystery of Mohammads soul”, relating to Abu Hanifa. Imam Ibn Hanbal was notable for metapharistic translation of Quran and was called “Imam of faithfuls”(although he was a subject of inquisition by mutazilits for his views on creation of Quran). Malik Ibn Anas “cleaned the house from war and demons”, he was “mujtaheed”; here we give our own rendering of Abu Bakr Qalandar’s assumptions. In this chapter Abu Hanifa is resembled to “mind”, ash-Shafi to “soul”, Ibn Hanbal to “key to perception”, and imam Malik to “revelation” and transition from worldly to spiritual – paring the skin, that was written by many other sufi theorists.

Also Abu Bakr acknowledges the legitimacy of this four ‘mazhabs’, writing that ‘all of us should follow this four imams and their students’, meaning branches (furu’), legal thesis of madhhabs, that were introduced later by their students.

Keywords: Abu Bakr Qalandar, Abu Hanif, Malik Ibn Anas, Imam Ibn Hanbal.

For citation: Abu Bakr Qalandar. Qalandar-name. Chapter 8. “Praises to Four Imams”. Transl. from Persian by M.R. Shamsimukhametova. Ed. by D.A. Shagaviev. Comm. by M.M. Yakubovich. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 443–449.

* Continuation. See the beginning in: Golden Horde Review. 2014, no. 2(4), pp. 243–252; no. 3, pp. 207–214; no. 4, pp. 198–207; 2015, no. 1, no. 171–177; no. 2, pp. 187–196; 2016, no. 1, pp. 193–207. Russian translation from Persian by M.R.Shamsimukhametova, academic edition of the translation by D.A.Shagaviev, comments by M.M.Yakubovych.

About the authors: Milyausha R. Shamsimukhametova – Post-graduate student, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences  (5 entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014 Russian Federation). E-mail: milya-ismagilova@yandex.ru

Damir A. Shagaviev – Cand. Sci. (History), Head of the Department of History of Religions and Social Thought, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences (5 entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014, Russian Fderation). E-mail: saiddamir@mail.ru

Mikhaylo M. Yakubovich – Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Researcher Fellow, National University “Ostrog Akademy” (2, Seminar Str., Rivne region, Ostrog 35800, Ukraine). E-mail: nitishini@gmail.com

Received  May 2, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 13, 2016

REWIEV OF THE BOOK: CHERKAS B.V. THE WESTERN DOMINIONS
OF THE ULUS OF JOCHI: POLITICAL HISTORY, TERRITORIAL-ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE, ECONOMICS, CITIES. (13^TH–14^TH CENTURIES). KIEV: INSTITUTE
OF HISTORY OF NAS OF UKRAINE, 2014. 387 P.

Ya.V. Pilipchuk

A. Krymskiy Intitute of Oriental Studies, National Academy of Science of Ukraine
Kiev 01001, Ukraine
E-mail: bachman@meta.ua

In 2014, the book by B.V. Cherkas was published in Ukraine dedicated to the western uluses of the Golden Horde. All the advantages and disadvantages of this work have been considered in the present review. The reviewer notes that the book allows us to fill in the existing gaps in the history of the Golden Horde. Cherkas revised administrative and territorial structure of the Golden Horde and estimated in a new way foreign policy situation during the khan Uzbek’s epoch. He noted that the beginning of the Golden Horde decline became apparent as early as in the reign of Uzbek. This was due to both natural factors and the offensive of the Europeans against the buffer states, which had been weakened by the Tatar invasion, although they returned to the sphere of the Jochid influence in 1321–1323. Cherkas introduced into historiography a new term – New Western campaign – to designate military operations in 1258–1260 against the Ruthenians, Lithuanians, Poles, Hungarians. He noted that the Mongol commanders preferred to wage war with the forces of their vassals. Based on the analysis of written sources, the researcher established the existence of a large ulus of Kurumyshi and a wing of Muval. Nogai founded his ulus on the territory of Muval’s wing. The ulus of Nogai did not cease to exist with his death: later sons and grandsons of Nogai ruled this ulus as well as one of Batuids and emirs. Centralization of state administration under the khans Uzbek, Janibek and Berdibek was only temporary. Replacing the Chinggisids by emirs was not a panacea for separatism. In addition, the researcher reconstructed the existence of several more uluses on the Dnieper left bank region. These are the ulus of Mankerman in the former principality of Pereyaslavl, the Samara-Orelsky ulus as well as the Crimean ulus. Ulus of Kurumyshi occupied large areas on the right bank of the Dnieper. It was conquered by Europeans in the course of the Hungarian and Lithuanian expansion. Reconstruction of Tokhtamish’s campaign in Podolia and Principality of Kiev in 1380 represents an important achievement of the scholar. Trying to prevent uprisings in the Black Sea uluses, Tokhtamish planted there his relatives and actively used the troops from Muval’s wing during campaigns in Iran and Central Asia. Reviewer’s comments have no fundamental significance and cannot seriously affect the appreciation of the work.

Keywords: ulus of Jochi, western dominions, Uzbek, Mamai, ulus of Nogai, wing of Мuval, Second Western campaign.

For citation: Pilipchuk Ya.V. Rewiev of the Book: Cherkas B.V. The Western Dominions of the Ulus of Jochi: Political History, Territorial-Administrative Structure, Economics, Cities. (13^th–14^th centuries). Kiev: Institute of History of NAS of Ukraine, 2014. 387 p. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 450–457.

About the author: Yaroslav V. Pilipchuk – Cand. Sci. (History), Research Fellow, Department of Eurasian Steppe, A. Krymskiy Intitute of Oriental Studies, National Academy of Science of Ukraine (4, Grushevsky Str., Kiev 01001, Ukraine). E-mail: bachman@meta.ua

Received  April 20, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 4, 2016

A WORD ON “ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE TATAR LANGUAGE”

R.T. Safarov

Ibragimov Institute of Language, Literature and Art
Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan
Kazan 420111, Russian Federation
E-mail: safar.rinat@yandex.ru

Research in the field of etymology demands from a specialist in-depth knowledge, vast erudition, language skills, extensive work experience. Therefore, there are not many works in this area in Tatar linguistics. Rifkat Gazizzyanovich Akhmetyanov is a linguist who devoted his life to this particular field of linguistics. His “Eymological Dictionary of the Tatar Language” is a long-awaited work not only for the Tatar humanitarians, but also for the whole Turkic world and researchers of the history and language of the ethnic groups neighboring with the Tatars. This is the first fundamental etymological dictionary in Tatar linguistics.

The two-volume dictionary contains information about the origin and formation of approximately 10 300 words, not counting their numerous variants. First of all, the author’s intention was to give an etymological analysis of the lexical structure of the Tatar literary language. Therefore, the dictionary contains all the root words of the three-volume explanatory dictionary of the Tatar language, published in 1977–1981. Special attention was also given to actively developing etymology of dialect vocabulary linking the Tatar language with other Turkic languages or borrowed from other languages.

In general, each entry is composed of vocable, its translation into Russian, dialectal variants with their values, indications of source language (if it is a borrowing), area of distribution, i.e. parallels of analyzed lexema, first of all, from the Turkic or, in certain cases, from the Slavic and Finno-Ugric and other languages (if it is not a borrowing). If the etymology of the word is clear, the author points out it. If it causes some controversy, he cites the opinion of authoritative researchers, expresses his attitude and so on.

The huge linguistic material based on the consistent scientific principles, studied in details and recorded in the dictionary, allows us to form an opinion on the influence of other languages on the Tatar one at different times as well as on the extent of this influence. This correspondingly contributes to a greater awareness of the past of the Tatar people, its history and culture.

Keywords: Eymological Dictionary of the Tatar Language, history, culture, tatar language, turkic language.

For citation: Safarov R.T. A Word on “Etymological Dictionary of the Tatar Language”. Golden Horde Review. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 458–460.

About the author: Rinat T. Safarov – Cand. Sci. (Philology), Senior Research Fellow, Lexicography Department, G. Ibragimov Institute of Language, Literature and Art, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan (2/31, Lobachevsky Str., Kazan 420111, Russian Federation). E-mail: safar.rinat@yandex.ru

Received  March 30, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 8, 2016

II INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC FORUM “ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF STUDY
AND PRESERVATION OF HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL LEGACY
OF THE CRIMEA” DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MENGLI GIRAY

E.E. Abibullaeva ¹ ^, ²

¹ Ismail Gasprinsky Memorial Museum
Bakhchisaray 298405, Crimea, Russian Federation

² Crimean Research Center of the Sh. Marjani Institute of History
of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Bakhchisaray 298405, Crimea, Russian Federation
E-mail: shems-annur@mail.ru

From 30 October to 1 November 2015, the Crimean Research Centre of Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences successfully held in the city of Bakhchisaray the II International Academic Forum “Actual Problems of Study and Preservation of Historical and Cultural Legacy of the Crimea” Dedicated to the Memory of Mengli Giray. 60 participants from different regions of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan took part in the Forum. Speakers highlighted the most urgent issues and proposed solutions and implementation of the study and preservation of historical and cultural heritage of the Crimea. During the forum, four round tables were held to the following issues: “The Role of Preservation of Historical and Cultural Heritage and Development of the Tourist Potential of the Republic of Crimea”, “Problems of Preservation and Study of the Historical Heritage of the Crimea”, “Philology, Ethnography, Art and Culture of the Crimean Ethnic Groups: Traditions and Contemporaneity”, “Women’s Diplomacy Day” dedicated to the memory of Nur Sultan. The Forum was concluded with a visit to the exhibition in Zyndzhyrly madrassas (historical and architectural monument of the 16^th century, Crimean Republican Institution “Bakhchisaray Historical, Cultural and Archaeological Museum-Reserve”) “Tugra and the Universe” (by I.Sheikh-Zade), in which the material from the eponymous work by Mirkasym Usmanov was used.

For citation: Abibullaeva E.E. II International Academic Forum “Actual Problems of Study and Preservation of Historical and Cultural Legacy of the Crimea” Dedicated to the Memory of Mengli Giray. Golden Horde Review. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 461–463.

About the author: Elmira E. Abibullaeva – Director, Ismail Gasprinsky Memorial Museum, Crimean Republican Institution “Bakhchisaray Historical, Cultural and Archaeological Museum-Reserve” (133, Rechnaya Str., Bakhchisaray 298405, Crimea, Russian Federation); Research Fellow, Crimean Research Center of the Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences (57 «L», Basenko Str., Bakhchisaray 298405, Crimea, Russian Federation). E-mail: shems-annur@mail.ru

Received  April 15, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 9, 2016

RESEARCH SEMINAR “THE EASTERN ULUSES OF THE KAZAN KHANATE”

A.V. Aksanov

Sh. Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences
Kazan 420014, Russian Federation
E-mail: aksanov571@gmail.com

February 25, 2016, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences held an academic seminar on the theme “The Eastern Uluses of the Kazan Khanate”. The seminar was organized by M.A.Usmanov Centre for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates. The Head of the Centre, Dr. I.M. Mirgaleev, and Dr. A.V. Aksanov acted as speakers. The seminar was dedicated to the main aspects of the history of the Western Urals’ Tatars. Participants discussed the hypothesis of the destruction of the Great (Ural) Hungary (Bascardia) and forcible deportation of its people as a result of the Western campaign of Batu (original idea by Roman Hautala). On the basis of heterogeneous authentic inforamtion, archaeological, epigraphic, genetic and linguistic materials, speakers proved the thesis of settling in the territory of Greater Hungary of the Kimaks, Bulgars and Khwarezmians, as well as of establishing in its place of Akidel ulus, that later became a part of the Kazan Khanate.

Speakers pointed to the discrepancy between the notions of historiography about Bashkir ulus’s location in the Kazan Khanate and authentic sources’ information of the 15^th–16^th centuries. On the basis of wide use of Bashkir shedzheres and extrapolation of the later information on the situation in the Kazan Khanate, many researchers came to the conclusion that the Bashkir ulus located in the southeast of the Khanate. In turn, the authors of the 16^th century wrote that this ulus was located at the north-eastern borders of the Kazan Khanate. Speakers hypothesized that Bashkir ulus had a special military and strategic value both for the Kazan Khanate and for the Russian state, which came to replace it. However, under the authority of the Russian state this ulus began to be used also for the purpose of conquering the Southern Urals. At the end of the 16^th century, the main conflict zone shifted to the southeast and this was followed by inclusion in the Bashkir ulus  of new “Bashkirs” from among the Nogai and Shibanid Tatars. Consequently, the ulus area shifted and substantially expanded. In 1586, it received the status of Ufa district.

For citation: Aksanov A.V. Research Seminar “The Eastern Uluses of the Kazan Khanate”. Golden Horde Review. 2016. Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 463–465.

About the author: Anvar V. Aksanov – Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow, Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates, Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences (5 entrance, Kremlin, Kazan 420014 Russian Federation). E-mail: aksanov571@gmail.com

Received  May 27, 2016
Accepted for publication  June 10, 2016