№ 2 2014

THE EMBASSY OF ZEMARKH TO THE RESIDENCE OF THE GREAT KAGHAN (FRAGMENTARY TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY OF THE WORK OF MENANDER PROTECTOR)

Olesia Zhdanovich

(Institute of History of Ukraine, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine)

The present article contains the translation and commentary to a fragment from the text of early Byzantine historian Menander Protector of the 6^th century who describes the first Byzantine embassy to the Turks in 568. This source is extremely important for the study of relations between civilizations in the early medieval period. When commenting the original source, the author sought to look through the eyes of the Romans on the relationship between European Byzantine and Asian steppe civilizations. The Turks drew attention to Byzantium in order to achieve with its help the diplomatic blockade of Persia and to derive from this maximum benefit. In 568, the Turkic khagan sent to Constantinople an embassy headed by the military leader Maniah. As a result of the negotiations, both sides agreed on joint military operations, which were to be undertaken, if necessary, against Persia and Avar tribes. But more important was the fact that the Turks obtained from Byzantium the right to control over Silk Road. In August 568, there occurred a reciprocal visit to the khanate. The Byzantine embassy was headed by Zemarh, commander of the eastern cities. The Romans’ journey to Altai was interesting and exciting since they knew nothing about the customs and lifestyle of the Turks before the travel. It was the completely unknown world to the Byzantines with an absolutely different mentality, way of life and mode of thinking. Zemarh’s diplomatic mission was described by Menander Protector who was a contemporary of Zemarh, historian and politician, and who knew the Byzantine court ceremonies and all diplomatic nuances. Obviously, the historian used in his work the protocols and reports of the embassy. Description of the Zemarh’s journey to the southern Altai, preserved in fragments of the Menander’s «History», provides us with a complete picture of how the Romans perceived the Turks.

Keywords: Great Turkic Khanate, Zemarh, Byzantine, khagan, Dizabul, Turks, Avars, Iran.

About the author: Olesia Petrovna Zhdanovich – Research Associate, Sector of civilizations of the Black Sea Region, Department of Regional history, Institute of History of Ukraine, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Cand. Sci. (History) (01001, Grushevsky st., 4, Kiev, Ukraine); olbio@bk.ru

BEGLERBEGI IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE MONGOL AND TURKIC STATE SYSTEM

V.V. Trepavlov

(Institute of Russian History, Russian Academy of Sciences)

This article is first to discuss the position of beglerbegi as one of the highest elite ranks in the system of traditional Turkic-Mongolian statehood. The author proposes some assumptions about its genesis analyzing information from medieval written and folklore sources. The study of this institution can contribute to the understanding of the peculiarities and regularities of social development of Turkic peoples throughout the long historical period. The beglerbegi institution (i.e. of the supremacy among the military elite) was formed among the Turkic Oghuzes not earlier than in the 11^th century, but had a lengthy background in ancient societies of the proto-State stage. It became one of the matrix forms for the functioning of the Turkic nomadic polities and was revived in the Ulus of Jochi as a result of the social strengthening of nomadic aristocracy. It was introduced, firstly, due to the favorable economic and demographic conditions of the 13^th century; and secondly, with the crisis and repressions in the ruling house of Batu during the reign of khan Tokhta and early reign of Uzbek khan, when Jochids, fighting for power, lost a support of their relatives and members of the dynasty and found it among the nomadic begis. The revival of Turkic institution of beglerbegi was stimulated both by Turkization of the Golden Horde court and bureaucracy and by penetration of the Iranian and Oghuz-Seljuk elements into a state system. The latter phenomenon was promoted both by a temporary reconciliation between traditionally hostile uluses of Jochi and Hulagu as well as by adoption of Islam as State religion in the Golden Horde. A typological correspondence between the Golden Horde beglerbegi and archaic leader of druzhina allows us to see in this institution the element of ancient Turkic legacy. The logic of historical development of the Golden Horde led to an excessive increase in the competence of chief begi, although he did not replaced the khan. By the weakening of Jochid statehood, the beglerbegis’ impact on the life of post-Horde States significantly increased since the late 14^th century. In some of them, this position was monopolized by begis from the Turkic tribe of Manghyt.

Keywords: beglerbegi, amir al-umara, ulugh beg, aristocracy, wings, Turkization, Manghyts, Edigu.

About the author: Vadim Vintserovich Trepavlov – Chief Researcher of the Institute of Russian history of Russian Academy of Sciences, Chief of the Center of History of the Peoples of Russia and Interethnic Relations, Dr. Sci. (History) (119192, Dmitry Ulyanov st., 19, Moscow, Russian Federation); trepavlov@yandex.ru

AN OVERVIEW OF «UMDET UL-AHBAR» BY ABDULGAFFAR QIRIMI

I.М. Mirgaleev

(Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan)

Derya Derin Paşaoğlu

(Karadeniz Technical University)

The article reviews the manuscript book of Abdulgaffar Qirimi by the name of «Umdet ul-Ahbar» («The Support of Communications»). This work is written in Ottoman language according to the tradition of Ottoman historical writings. Authors of the article briefly recount Abdulgaffar Qirimi’s information contained in his work and dedicated to Genghis Khan, the Golden Horde, and the Crimean Khanate. Recently in Kazan have been published the facsimile and transcription of this work. Therefore, the authors decided to introduce into scholarly circulation the Russian summary of this work (the work being translated into Russian). Using a continuous method, the authors have made an overview of the main political events mentioned in the book. This information will be useful for the specialists studying the history of the Golden Horde and Tatar khanates. The importance of this source is beyond any doubt since Abdulgaffar Qirimi reports many original details and, especially for the 18^th century, his information is authentic and based on personal observations. The manuscript book consists of several parts. It contains information about world history, the history of the prophets, the history of the Seljuks and Ottomans. The main part of the work is devoted to the Golden Horde (starting from Genghis Khan and his descendants), Crimean Khanate, Girayids and murzas. Abdulgaffar Qirimi sought to write a history of the descendants of Jochi khan. He used in his book more than 20 historical works. Abdulgaffar Qirimi reports the names of these works and indicates where he got this or that information. At the same time, he had access to the archives of the Crimean Khanate and used his family legends as well as popular traditions. Plenty of space in his work occupy his own observations as of a participant in military campaigns and court life. Although Abdulgaffar Qirimi makes some mistakes, however his work contains a complete history of the Golden Horde. His information concerning khans Berke, Tokhta, Uzbek, Tokhtamysh, and Ulugh Muhammad reflects the «popular version» and is based on oral historiology of the Tatars. Extensive information about the Crimean Khanate and the State structure of khanate are sufficiently original. In addition, a question of the spread of Islam among Tatars is considered in some detail and largely confirmed by other sources.

Keywords: manuscript book, «Umdet ul-Ahbar», Abdulgaffar Qirimi, Crimea, Genghis Khan, Jochi khan, Giray Khan, political history.

About the authors: Il’nur Midkhatovich Mirgaleev – Head of the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde History, Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, Cand. Sci. (History) (420014, Kremlin, entrance 5, Kazan, Russian Federation); dilnur1976@mail.ru

Derya Derin Paşaoğlu – Assistant Professor, the Department of History, Karadeniz Technical University, Ph.D. (History) (Trabzon, Turkey); derinderya@ktu.edu.tr

SOURCES ON THE GOLDEN HORDE HISTORY IN THE TURKIC, PERSIAN AND ARABIC FROM THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF TURKEY (ANKARA) AND SULEYMANIYE LIBRARY (ISTANBUL): PERSPECTIVES FOR THE STUDY

D.R. Zaynuddinov

(Russian Islamic University)

In this article, the author presents the library of Sulaymaniyah (Istanbul) and the National Library of Turkey (Ankara) in the light of manuscript sources. The author gives a description of the thirteen Turkic, four Persian, and seven Arabic sources on the history of the Golden Horde. The author pays particular attention to the work of Egyptian author Ibn Taghribirdi (813–874 AH), «al-Manhal al-safi wa-al-mustawfa bada al-wafi» (Clean and completing source after the full one). This work is an extensive biographical collection of outstanding personalities of the epoch, in which Ibn Taghribirdi lived

Keywords: source study, Golden Horde, library of Sulaymaniyah (Istanbul), National Library of Turkey, Ibn Taghribirdi, «al-Manhal al-safi wa-al-mustawfa bada al-wafi» (Clean and completing source after the full one), Salah al-Din as-Safadi.

About the author: Damirdzhan Rustamdzhonovich Zaynuddinov – Senior lecturer at the Russian Islamic University, post-graduate student of Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan (420049, Gazovaya st., 19, Kazan, Russian Federation); abu-hanifanur@yandex.ru

Iu.V. SELEZNEV’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE JUCHID ULUS*

Charles J. Halperin

(Indiana University, USA)

This article for the first time in scholarship surveys the contribution of Iurii Vasil’evich Seleznev of Voronezh State University to the study of Rus’-Tatar relations and the Juchid ulus, called the Golden Horde, during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. The article contains analyses of five major monographs written by Seleznev dealing with Rus’-Tatar relations from 1385 to 1434, the composition of the elite of the Juchid ulus, military conflicts between Rus’ and the Horde during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, (with Andrei Olegovich Amel’kin) the history and historical memory of the battle of Kulikovo Field in 1380, and the role of Rus’ princes as members of the Juchid ulus elite. The article identifies the strengths and weaknesses of each monograph. Finally the article attempts for the first time to draw connections among the conclusions of the five monographs. The strength of Seleznev’s work are his equal mastery of the societies on both sides of the Rus’-Tatar border. His employs the Rus’ sources and Russian translations of oriental sources in new and creative ways to extract hard data on previously unposed questions or on questions which have been previously posed but answered subjectively such as the parameters of Rus’ princely trips to the Horde or the frequency of Rus’-Tatar military conflicts. In addition he appreciates the complex evolution of Rus’ literary works such as those about the battle of Kulikovo Field in 1380. Seleznev also approaches questions of social history with an open mind inoculated against nationalist prejudices which would reject out of hand any possibility of Tatar influence on the Rus’ mentality or society. He is sparing in his use of anachronistic and biased terminology toward the Tatars. The weaknesses of his studies include a lack of familiarity with studies of the Mongol Empire and its successor states other than the Juchid ulus in Western languages which by and large precludes comparative analysis and results in an insular presentation of Rus’-Horde relations in isolation from the parallel experience of other sedentary societies subjected to Mongol rule. He has not himself integrated the results of his separate monographs, for example by addressing the contradiction between what must have been the enormous Rus’ expertise about the Horde with the often simplistic pejorative depiction of the Tatars in Rus’ sources. Seleznev had not as yet written a comprehensive study of Rus’-Tatar relations which would encompass the totality of Rus’-Tatar interaction, including for example institutional borrowing. Nevertheless the strengths of his research far outweigh the weaknesses. Seleznev’s ever-growing body of work makes a significant contribution to increasing historical knowledge of medieval Rus’ and the Tatars of the Juchid ulus.

Keywords: Rus’, Juchid ulus, Golden Horde, battle of Kulikovo, Tatar Yoke.

About the author: Charles J. Halperin – Research Fellow of the Russian and East European Institute, Indiana University Bloomington (Bloomington, Indiana, USA); chalperi@indiana.edu

* This essay substantially reprints my reviews of Seleznev, Iu.V. «A peremenit Bog Ordu…» (Russko-ordynskie otnosheniia v kontse XIV – pervoi treti XV vv.). Ab Imperio, 2006, no. 4, pp. 428–431; Seleznev, Iu. V. Elita Zolotoi Ordy. Ab Imperio, 2009, no. 4, pp. 396–400; and Amel’kin, A.O. and Seleznev, Iu.V. Kulikovskaia bitva v sviditel’stvakh sovremennikov i pamiati potomkov. Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 14, 2013, pp. 853–64. I wish to thank the editors of «Ab Imperio» and «Kritika» for permission to do so.

THE «THEORY OF MAUSOLEUMS» OR THE REGIONAL FEATURES OF SPIRITUAL MEMORIAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE GOLDEN HORDE ERA IN THE URAL-VOLGA REGION (Historical and Ethnographical Aspects of the Problem)

G.N. Garustovich

(Institute of History, Language and Literature
of the Ufa Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences)

This article reviewes the features of the funeral ceremonies in the Muslim mausoleums of 14^th century in the Ulus of Jochi (Ak-Horde). The author states that there was an independent architectural school in cultic memorial architecture of the Golden Horde. This school can be recognized in its stone and brick mausoleums. The author analyses features of the funeral tradition of the period when the dual faith believes (period of the nascence of Islam) was spread all over the steppe empire. The Muslim burials appeared in the times of Islamization, a policy pursued by Uzbeg khan and his successors in 14^th century. The mausoleums were built for the aristocracy. The author believes that they also served as a monumental propaganda of Islam. From the very beginning, those monumental buildings in the steppe areas were turned into the venues with the social significance, into the sacral places for worshiping the ancestors, into the sacral monuments of the tribal territories. At the same time, the mausoleums, initially built as the family burials of the elite of the nomad empire, were keeping their first function. Thus, the empire’s ruling class was trying to win over the aristocratic members of the society and get their loyalty in the process of conversion to the new monotheistic religion, which had become empire’s new ideology. Islam in the Ulus of Jochi was not accepted immediately and had to coexist with different religion in the 14^th century. Muslim mausoleums contain significant number of the heathen artifacts (jewelry, clothes etc.), which can serve as the evidence of the coexistence of heathenism and Islam.

In general, cultic memorial architecture accomplished its «mission». The Golden Horde was successfully Islamized. Over time, the Turkic people under the empire converted to Islam thus becoming the part of the world Muslim civilization.

Keywords: brick architecture of the Golden Horde, 14^th century Muslim mausoleums, features of funeral ceremony, dual faith, memorial architecture.

About the author: Gennadiy Nikolaevich Garustovich – Senior Research Fellow of the Archaeological Research Department of the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Cand. Sci. (History) (450054, Prospekt Oktyabrya st., 71, Ufa, Bashkortostan); garustovich03@mail.ru

EMIRS OF UZBEK KHAN AND JANIBEK KHAN

Zh.M. Sabitov

(L.N. Gumilev Eurasian National University)

This article explores the question about the origin of the Golden Horde emirs’ dynasties during the reign of Uzbek and Janibek khan. Based on numerous Venetian, Arabic, Turkish, Persian primary sources the author provides his own version of origin and genealogical relationships of various emirs. Based on a list of emirs of Janibek khan from «Daftar-i Chingiz-name», the author traces the origins of Mogul-buga to Kipchak tribe and the origins of Kutlu buga to Naiman tribe. Author argues that during the reign of Uzbek khan, the Kungirat and Kiyat were the most influential clans. The Kipchak and Nayman were the most influential clans during the reign of Janibek khan. The author considers three-level hierarchy of emirs. The first level includes the emirs – clan rulers in every district (ulus). There were 4 tribes in each ulus. The second level includes the emirs who were the rulers of ulus. After the administrative reform of Uzbek khan, they replaced the Jochids in the political system of the Golden Horde. If formerly the governance of ulus was inherited by one of the Jochids, then during the reign of Uzbek khan emirs were appointed directly from the center. The third level includes four Karachi Beys who were advisers of the khan. The author also examines the origin of Nanguday from Kungirat clan. The author puts forward his own version of a genealogy of Nanguday. Additionally, this article contains the author’s assumptions about biography of Isatay Kiyat and Isa Uysun. According to these assumptions, Isatay Kiyat can be identified with well-known Gourgen Isa. And Isa Uysun, in turn, can be identified with the brother of Tuluk Timur, who was a governor of the Crimea in the era of Uzbek khan.

Keywords: Golden Horde, Uzbek khan, Janibek khan, Kipchak, Nayman, Kiyat, Kungirat, political system.

About the author: Zhaksylyk Muratovich Sabitov – Associate Professor, Political Science Department, L.N. Gumilev Eurasian National University, Ph.D. (History) (010008, Munaytpasov str., Building 5, Astana, Kazakhstan); babasan@yandex.ru

FORMATION OF THE KAZAN KHANATE THROUGH THE EYES OF CONTEMPORARIES AND DESCENDANTS

A.V. Aksanov

(Tyumen State University)

The article analyzes the problem of the Kazan Khanate’s formation and its perception by contemporaries and descendants. The author reveals the factors that affected the perception of medieval writers and contemporary historians of the 17^th–21^st centuries. Based on the hermeneutical analysis of texts, the author makes conclusions about information value and reliability of some chronicle reports. The 15^th century sources contain few data on the establishment of the Kazan Khanate. This topic became relevant only in the middle of the 16^th century, when the Russian State began to implement an active policy with a view to joining of the Volga region. At this time, the Russian writers had already unambiguous concepts of the khanate’s formation. As a result, historians developed two basic approaches to the description of events. Supporters of the first approach claimed that the Kazan khanate was founded in 1437–1438 by the khan Ulu-Mahomed, other historians considered that Ulu-Mahomed’s son Mahmoud, who occupied Kazan in 1445, was the first Kazan khan. At the same time, none of the versions of the Kazan Khanate’s formation is supported by at least two independent sources. The first approach is based on the report of the «History of Kazan», the second view is based on the official reports of the Moscow chroniclers. The article reveals the allegorical nature of some reports of the «History of Kazan», which were perceived by historians literally and served as a source for the reconstruction of the historical reality. The idea of a violent accession of the Horde dynasty in Kazan widely circulated in official sources due to the fact that this idea justified military and diplomatic actions of Moscow, which were aimed in turn at subduing the khanate. The author points to the existence of additional information confirming the fact that the first khan was namely Mahmud and not Ulu-Muhammad. However, the author urges to refrain from categorical judgments about the dating and circumstances of the khanat’s establishment.

Keywords: Kazan khanate, Russian principalities, historiography, Russian chronicles.

About the author: Anvar Vasil’evich Aksanov – Associate Professor at the Department of the National History of the Institute of History and Political Sciences of the Tyumen State University, Cand. Sci. (History) (Tyumen, Russia); aksanov571@gmail.com

DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN PLANNING CULTURE IN THE KAZAN KHANATE (1)*

Kh.G. Nadyrova

(Kazan State University of Architecture and Engineering)

The Kazan Khanate has evolved over a century. However, during this period, the formation of its urban planning culture was based on the traditions of the Golden Horde, which was the materialization of the attitudes of the society and the State toward the form of cities and settlements with complexes of buildings and structures. Achievements of urban planning culture of the Kazan Khanate was largely manifested in its capital – Kazan.The author used a synergetic approach or complexity theory of the cities, according to which the city is investigated as a holistic and open system. It is organized hierarchically with interconnected mega-, media- and micro-levels and is capable of self-organization and development.Spatial organization of the Kazan Khanate was at the mega-level. The value of this level in the system of the city manifested itself in the location of Kazan on the territory of the khanate, connections with cities in other states and with centers of uluses of the khanate. Media level was formed by architectural-spatial structure and planning structure together with its elements: landscape, communication frame, large architectural complexes. Micro-level included separate religious, memorial, public, residential buildings and household constructions.Changes at each of these levels led to changes in the complicated system rectilinearly and unpredictably. In accordance with the theory of the complexity of cities, the urban system is changed by applying the means of influence (development mechanisms) into hierarchical levels.

At the media level, these funds were laws and decrees that regulate construction, traditional principles and methods of construction of various ethno-social groups, medieval towns, etc.

Mechanisms of development on the mega-level were: laws and decrees of the khans, military pressure of the neighboring states, recognition or denial of the rights of various ethnic groups within the khanate on the traditional ethnic areas, etc.

Urban planning culture of the Kazan Khanate as a system in the period from 1445 to 1552, passed through several phases of development: formation after the collapse of the Golden Horde; development in the state of unstable equilibrium under conditions of confrontation with the Moscow State and the Nogai Horde; chaos and death when the Russian State defeated the khanate and Kazan.

Application of the synergetic approach in the research made it possible to trace the features of the development of urban planning culture of the Kazan Khanate.

Keywords: urban planning, architecture, history, synergetics, сomplexity theory of the cities.

About the author: Khanifa Gabidullovna Nadyrova – Dean of the Faculty of General architectural and artistic training, Head of the Department of Architectural composition, Kazan State University of Architecture and Engineering, Cand. Sci. (Architecture), Associate Professor (420043, Zelenaya str., 1, Kazan, Russian Federation); nadyrova-kh@yandex.ru

* Beginnig of the article.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE REIGNS AND PERSONALITIES OF THE RULERS OF THE CRIMEAN KHANATE IN 1475–1478

V.P. Gulevich

(Staff of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine)

Captivated Mengli Giray remained the Crimean Khan nominally and lived more than a year under the full control of the Turks, probably in Caffa. Crimean Karachi-beys were united against Eminek during the struggle for power. As the result of their efforts, the «Cossack» prince Dzhanibek, the son of Akhmad Khan, became the Crimean ruler, independent from the Great Horde and the Ottoman Empire. Since he ruled as a sovereign ruler, Meñli’s stay in the Crimea lost sense and he was taken to Turkey in October–November 1476. In the late summer and early autumn 1477 Djanibek lost power under unknown circumstances and went to Moscow. Power in the Crimea was shared between Nur-Devlet and Idar. This probably happened with the assistance of Prince Abdullah and Barin Yamgurchi. After Eminek had lost his influence on khans, he fairly quickly managed to destabilize situation or use the unstable situation in the Crimea for his own purposes and, with the consent of the Turkish sultan, he once again brought to power Meñli Giray in the late 1478 or early 1479.

Keywords: 1475–1478, Crimean Khanate, Great Horde, Ottoman Empire, Meñli I Giray khan, Nur-Devlet khan, Djanibek khan, Eminek karachi-bey.

About the author: Vladislav Petrovich Gulevich – chief adviser, Office for Relations with the Local Government and the Local Authorities to the Staff of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, MA (History) (01008, M. Grushevskiy st., 5, Kiev, Ukraine); gulevych_v@ukr.net

IBRAHIM, SON OF MAHMOUDEK: ACCESSION TO POWER AND PURSES (2)*

A.L. Ponomarev

(Lomonosov Moscow State University)

The death of the Crimean khan Haij Garey on 25 August 1466 was followed by two months of the political turmoil. Sons of the late ruler, Mengli Garey and Nur Dawlat, were two pretenders well-known to the historians. But numismatic material and newly found archival documents prove that there was one more claimant khan. He was the protege of the Shirin bek Mamak and the copper puls of Caffa with the forked tamga testify that the Genoeses were inclined to accept his supremacy. The said heraldic symbol didn’t belong to Garey khans and it was never more used for the coins of Caffa or the khanate after 1441, when Tartar beks elected Haji Garey to be their lord. These puls were the fractional currency that became necessary after there had happened the monetary reform in the khanate and those old silver dangs started to circulate side by side with a new silver denomination – aqcha. The author has discovered that these puls have die links with aqcha coins of Nur Dawlat and moreover he has found that the third «Emperor» had been mentioned in the unpublished accounts of the Genoese treasury, composed in September and October 1466. The shape of his tamga as well the steady political predilections of the Shirin beks demonstrate his kinship with Ulugh Muhammad. The name of this previously unbeknown Crimean khan, who became next year the khan of the Kazan khanate, was Ibrahim. The name of this khan is written on those coins which were earlier attributed to the Siberian khan Ibrahim (Ibak) without real, only on far-fetched and untutored grounds.

Keywords: Crimean Khanat, Golden Horde, Genova, Caffa, Massaria Caffe, numismatics, political history, Ibrahim bin Mahmoudek, Nur Dawlat Giray, Ahmad bin Muhammad, Mamak Shirin, copper coinage, dang, aqcha, tamga.

About the author: Andrey Leonidovich Ponomarev – Leading Research Fellow, Department of Medieval Studies, Faculty of History, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Dr. Sci. (History) (119992, Lomonosov Prospekt, 27, housing 4, Moscow, Russian Federation); medieval@hist.msu.ru

* Ending of the article. Beginning of the article see in the previous issue: Golden Horde Review. 2014. No 1(3), pp. 128–162.

CAMPAIGNS OF THE CRIMEAN TATARS AND OTTOMANS AGAINST IRAN*

Özer Küpeli

(Izmir Katip Celebi University)

Starting from the 15^th century, when the Crimean Khanate recognized the authority of the Ottoman Empire, its forces was actively used by the Ottoman Empire in its foreign policy. Especially the Tatars were indispensable allies in campaigns against Western European countries, Caucasus, and, subsequently, in the containment of the Moscow State. However, Tatar troops of the Crimean Khanate were also used in other political directions of the Ottoman Empire. The main rival of the Ottoman State in the east was the Safavid Iran. Troops of the Crimean Khanate also took part in these campaigns of the Ottomans. The author describes the participation of Tatar troops in the war with Iran. During the Ottoman military campaigns, the Tatars, for the most part, played a role of Akinji moving ahead of the Ottoman forces and collecting trophies and prey in hostile lands, rather than participating in the frontline battles. Initially, the Crimean khans participated only in the wars that took place in the western territories. However, the situation changed in the second half of the 16^th century under Sultan Suleiman, when the Crimean cavalry was also involved in the eastern campaigns. The Tatars did not particularly want to participate in campaigns against Iran. There were cases, when these campaigns ended in tears: with the capture of the heir to the Crimean throne (Adil Giray), its execution and the defeat of the Tatar army. However, the Crimean khans participated in every campaign against Iran on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Disobeying the Sultan orders could lead to the replacement of khan (Mehmed Giray II). Archive documents reveal that the number of Tatar troops sent against Iran, ranged from 5 to 10 thousand soldiers, although the Ottoman sources overestimates the amount (30–40 thousand).

Keywords: Crimean Khanate, Tatars, Iran, Ottoman Empire, Sultan Suleiman, military campaigns, warriors.

About the author: Özer Küpeli – Lecturer, Izmir Katip Celebi University, Ph.D. (History) (Izmir, Turkey); okupeli@gmail.com

* Translation from Turkish by R.R. Galeeva and I.M. Mirgaleev.

QALANDAR-NAME. CHAPTER 1. «MONOTHEISM»

Abu Bakr Qalandar

The proposed excerpt of theological work is the translation of the first chapter of «Qalandar-name», supplemented by comments. This is the first edition of chapter from the medieval theological work written in the Golden Horde during the active Islamization of its population, during the times of great Khans – Muhammad Uzbek and Janibek. Its author, Abu Bakr Qalandar, was a native of the city of Aksaray (in modern Turkey), Sufi, great scholar, imam of a mosque in the city of Stary Krym. «Qalandar-name» is an encyclopedic work on Islamic matters and Sufism that begins with a traditional intonation typical for the works of Muslim authors, especially for compilers of theological writings. In this chapter entitled «Tawhid» (monotheism), Abu Bakr Qalandar speaks about beautiful names of the Almighty, about his creative work (comparing it with the jewelry craftsmanship), about heaven and hell, a small (world of sagri) and the highest (world of kibriya) worlds. D. Shagivaleev who wrote commentaries on the first chapter, supplied the text with verses, to which, according to him, Abu Bakr made allusions. Analysis of the work of Abu Bakr Qalandar reveals that the author of this source was an educated man of his time. In this chapter, Abu Bakr reports about the basic concepts of Islam. The authors plan to publish subsequent chapters of this work in the next issues.

GOLDEN HORDE HISTORY IN THE WORKS OF A.N. KURAT

I.М. Mirgaleev

(Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan)

The article examines main works of the famous Turkish historian A.N. Kurat, his views and assessments of the Golden Horde history. It is known that A.N. Kurat introduced into scholarly circulation yarlyks-letters of the Golden Horde khans, which he found in the archives of the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. A number of his works and articles are devoted to the Golden Horde and its rulers. The article discusses the works of A.N. Kurat that are dedicated to the Golden Horde, as well as his main ideas, sources of the author. The works of A.N. Kurat still have not lost their significance. His works on the Golden Horde topics are mainly devoted to the source study, his reconstruction of events is based on primary sources of the Golden Horde origin. Kurat also noted the special importance of his own sources. In his works, he explored the following three Golden Horde documents: Bitik of Ulugh Muhammad Murad II, letter of Mahmud Khan bin Muhammad Khan bin Timur Khan to Fatih Sultan Mehmed, and letter of Ahmad Khan ibn Muhammad ibn Timur Khan to Fatih Sultan Mehmed. Kurat studied yarlyks and bitiks at a high scholarly level of source studies. They still are the basis for the study of the Golden Horde documents. Thanks to the good knowledge of the Ottoman, Russian, European sources, and historiography A.N. Kurat analyzed in detail the political situation in the Golden Horde; especially valuable are his works on the 15^th century. His works on the period of Ulug Muhammad are still among the most important works devoted to this outstanding personage of the late Golden Horde. In his works Kurat asked himself: why the Golden Horde disintegrated? In search of answers to this question he put to the first place the confrontation between Tokhtamysh Khan and Timur Aksak. His conclusions about relationship between the Golden Horde and the Ottoman Empire are confirmed by the latest works on this topic.

Keywords: Golden Horde, A.N. Kurat, khans’ yarlyks, Ottoman Empire, Ulugh Muhammad, Aksak Timur, Tokhtamysh-Khan.

About the author: Il’nur Midkhatovich Mirgaleev – Head of the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde History, Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, Cand. Sci. (History) (420014, Kremlin, entrance 5, Kazan, Russian Federation); dilnur1976@mail.ru

MOŞTENIREA CULTURALĂ TURCĂ ÎN DOBROGEA:
Simpozion Internaţional, Muzeul de Istorie Naţională şi Arheologie
Constanţa, 24–25 Septembrie 2013

[TURKISH LEGACY IN DOBRUJA: International Symposium, National History and Archaeology Museum of Constanta (Romania), 24–25 September 2013]

Giuseppe Cossuto

In September 2013, an interesting International Symposium regarding the Turkish Cultural Legacy in Dobruja, the historical country today divided between Romania and Bulgaria, was held in the halls of the National History and Archaeology Museum of Constanta (Romania). An overview of the Proceedings of the Symposium edited by Tahsin Gemil, Gabriel Custurea, Delia R. Cornea is presented in the article (see: Moştenirea culturală turcă în Dobrogea: simpozion internaţional: Constanţa, 24 septembrie, 2013 / referenți ştiințifici: prof. univ. dr. Tasin Gemil, dr. Gabriel Custurea; coord.: prof. univ. dr. Tasin Gemil, dr. Gabriel Custurea, dr. Delia Roxana Cornea. Bucureşti: Top Form, 2013. Available at: http://www.academia.edu/6845746/Mo_tenirea_culturala_turca_in_Dobrog ea_The_Turkish_Cultural_Legacy_in_Dobroudja_).

About the author: Giuseppe Cossuto – Independent Researcher, Ph.D. (Islamic Civilization) (Roma, Italy), cossuto@libero.it

INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH CONFERENCE

«THE MEDIEVAL TURKIC-TATAR STATES AND THEIR NEIGHBORS IN THE SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (15^th – 18^th centuries)», 14–15 March 2014

I.М. Mirgaleev

(Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan)

This article contains a brief description of the International research conference «The Medieval Turkic-Tatar States and their Neighbors in the System of International Relations (15^th–18^th centuries)». This International conference was held in Kazan on 14–15 March, 2014. The conference was organized by Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan. The conference was attended by numerous researchers who specialize in various historical disciplines and arrived at the conference from different countries. The author gives a brief description of the papers presented at the conference.

Keywords: international relations, Tatarstan, Kazan, conference, historical disciplines, report.

About the author: Il’nur Midkhatovich Mirgaleev – Head of the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde History, Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, Cand. Sci. (History) (420014, Kremlin, entrance 5, Kazan, Russian Federation); dilnur1976@mail.ru