2017. Vol. 5, no. 2. Vladimír Liščák

2017. Vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 276-289

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22378/2313-6197.2017-5-2.276-289

   THE CHRISTIAN NOBLES AT THE COURT OF GREAT KHAN,
AS DESCRIBED IN MEDIAEVAL EUROPEAN SOURCES* 

Vladimír Liščák
Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences
Prague, Czech Republic
vliscak@gmail.com

Research objectives: “Moreover, the chief princes of his whole empire, more than thirty thousand in number, who are called Alans, and govern the whole Orient, are Christians either in fact or in name, calling themselves the Pope’s slaves, and ready to die for the Franks.” With these words John of Marignola, a notable traveller to the Far East in the fourteenth century and a legate to the Great Khan of Cathay, attested in his Cronica Boemorum the presence of certain Christian nobles of the Alan race in the service of the Mongol-Chinese emperor. The immediate impetus for Marignola’s mission was that in 1336 the Great Khan Ukhaghatu Toghon-Temür sent a delegation of sixteen “Franks” (Franquis), as the Mongols called Europeans, ad Papam, Dominum Christianorum in Franchiam. They brought two letters to the pope: one purporting to be from the Great Khan himself, and the other from certain princes of the Christian Alans in his service. By the coming of the Mongolian legation in Avignon in 1338, we are informed, among others, that the successor of John of Montecorvino, the first archbishop in Khanbalik, had never reached his destination, as well as the other succeeding archbishops to Khanbalik.
Research materials: Marignola’s mission was important not only with its spiritual message, but rather with an excellent choice of gift for the Great Khan. Western messengers brought with them, among the gifts from the Pope in Rome, a singularly auspicious present: a magnificent black horse with white hind hooves. Marignola, in his Cronica Boemorum, identifies the Christian dignitaries at the court of the Great Khan as the Alans. We know of them from earlier sources, but mostly under the generic name “Christians” or “Nestorian Christians”. John of Montecorvino reportedly converted many Alans (he did not mention their name) to Roman Catholic Christianity in addition to Armenians in China. According to the Annals of the Yuan Dynasty, in 1229 and 1241, when army of Ögedei Khan reached the Country of the Aas (Alans), their chief submitted at once and a body of one thousand Alans was kept for the private guard of the Great Khan. Möngke Khan enlisted in his bodyguard half of the troops of Arslan, an Alan prince, whose younger son Nicholas took a part in the expedition of the Mongols against Qaraǰang (Yunnan). Marco Polo mentions Alania among the countries conquered by the Mongols, and devotes a whole chapter to an account of the slaughter of certain Alans who were Christians and formed a corps in Kublai’s army. The number and influence of Christians in China at the end of the thirteenth century may be gathered from the letter of John of Montecorvino, and in the first part of the following century from the report of the Archbishop of Soltania, who describes them as more than thirty thousand in number, and passing rich people. That Christians continued to rise in influence during the short remainder of the Mongol reign appears probable from the position which we find the Christian Alans to occupy in the empire at the time of the visit of John of Marignola. Also Odoric of Pordenone several times mentioned “great barons” (magni barones aspicientes solum ad personam regis) at the court of the Great Khan. Interesting is Odoric’s pleasant anecdote concerning his presentation of apples to Yesün Temür Khan which reveals the easy acceptance of the Latin Christians by the emperor and his top generals – the hereditary Alan guards that protected Kublai’s descendants.
Results and novelty of the research: What happened to the multitude of converts that John of Montecorvino and others claimed for Rome, when the Ming dynasty took control in 1368? A recent study suggests that Christian worship, instead of dying out under this pressure, simply became more circumspect in its visible forms of worship. Some fifteenth-century Christians migrated from the coast or other cities to smaller communities, in order to worship quietly as they wished.

Keywords: religion in mediaeval China, Yuan Dynasty China, Christianity in the Great Khan court, Franciscan missions, Christian Alan nobility, Western mediaeval sources

For citation: Liščák V. The Christian Nobles at the Court of Great Khan, as Described in Mediaeval European Sources. Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review. 2017. Vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 276–289. DOI: 10.22378/2313-6197.2017-5-2.276-289

* This article was kindly supported by MOFA Taiwan Fellowship (外交部「臺灣獎助金」) 2016.

REFERENCES

  1. Arnold L. Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China and Its Influence on the Art of the West, 1250–1350. San Francisco, Desiderata Press, 1999. 239 p.
  2. Baluzius St. (Étienne Baluze). Vitæ paparum avenionensium: Hoc est Historia Pontificum Romanorum qui in Gallia sederunt ab anno Christi MCCCV usque ad annum MCCCXCIV. Stephanus Baluzius Tutelensis magnam partem nunc primum edidit, reliquam emendavit ad vetera exemplaria, Notas adjecit et collectionem actorum veterum Tome 1. Parisiis, Apud Franciscum Muguet Regis, Cleri Gallicani, & Illustrissimi Archiepiscopi Parisiensis Typographum, 1693. Cum Privilegio Regis. (In Latin)
  3. Bretschneider E. Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: fragments towards the knowledge of the geography and history of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th century. Vol II. With a reproduction of a Chinese mediæval map of Central and Western Asia. London, Trübner & Co., Ludgate Hill, 1888. 371 p.
  4. Brocanelli Br. V., ofm. Franciscans without frontiers. [Strasbourg], Éditions du Signe, 2008. viii + 95 p.
  5. Dashdondog B. Submission to the Mongol Empire by the Armenians. Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, 2009, 18 (3), pp. 76–103.
  6. De Mailla P. J.-A.-M. Histoire générale de la Chine, ou Annales de cet empire; traduites du Tong-kien-kang-mou, par le feu Père Joseph-Anne-Marie de Moyriac de Mailla, Jésuite François, missionnaire à Pékin, publiées par M. l’Abbé Grosier, et dirigées par M. Le Roux des Hautesrayes, Conseiller-Lecteur du Roi, Professeur d’Arabe au Collège Royal de France, Interprète de Sa Majesté pour les Langues Orientales. Ouvrage enrichi de figures & de nouvelles cartes géographiques de la Chine ancienne & moderne, levées par ordre du feu Empereur Kang-Hi, & gravées pour la première fois. Tome neuvième. A Paris, chez Ph.-D. Pierres, Imprimeur du Grand-Conseil du Roi, & du Collège Royal de France, rue Saint-Jacques, & Clousier, Imprimeur-Libraire, rue Saint-Jacques, 1779. Avec approbation, et privilége du Roi. (In French)
  7. Emler J. (ed.). Kronika Jana z Marignoly. Johannis de Marignola Chronicon. Fontes rerum Bohemicarum. Tom. III. Prameny dějin českých, vydávané z Nadání Palackého péčí „Spolku historického v Praze“. V Praze 1882. Nákladem Nadání Františka Palackého. V komissí kněhkupectví Dr. Grégr a Ferd. Dattel, pp. 485–604. (In Latin)
  8. Epistolæ Fr. Iohannis de Monte Corvino. Sinica Franciscana. Vol. I. Itinera et relationes fratrum minorum sæculi XIII et XIV. Collegit, ad fidem codicum redegit et adnotavit P. Anastasius van den Wyngaert O. F. M. Ad claras aquas (Quaracchi – Firenze), Apud Collegium S. Bonaventuræ, 1929, pp. 340–355. (In Latin)
  9. Gaubil P. [Antoine]. Histoire de Gentchiscan et de toute la dinastie des Mongous, ses successeurs, conquérans de la Chine; tirée de l’Histoire chinoise, et traduite par le R.P. Gaubil de la Compagnie de Jesus, Missionaire à Péking. A Paris, Chez Briasson, Libraire, rue Saint Jacques et Piget, Libraire, sur le Quay des Augustins, 1739. Avec approbation et privilege du Roy. (In French)
  10. Gaubil P. [Antoine]. Traité de la chronologie chinoise, divisé en trois parties; composé par le Père Gaubil, missionnaire à la Chine, et publié, pour servir de suite aux Mémoires concernant les Chinois, par M. Silvestre de Sacy. A Paris. Chez Treuttel et Würtz Libraires, ancien hôtel de Lauraguais, rue de Lille, no. 17; et à Strasbourg, même maison de Commerce, 1814. (In French)
  11. Golubovich G. Biblioteca bio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e dell’Oriente francescano. Tomo IV: Annali di Terra Santa dal 1333 al 1345. Ad claras aquas (Quaracchi – Firenze), Apud Collegium S. Bonaventuræ 1923. v + 503 p. (In Italian, Latin)
  12. Haw S.G. Marco Polo’s China: A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan. London, Routledge, 2006. vii + 214 p.
  13. Hill J.E. Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. The Xiyu juan “Chapter on the Western Regions” from Hou Hanshu 2nd Draft Edition, 2003 (online edition: <http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad /texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html>)
  14. Jackson P. The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410. London, Longman, 2005. xxxiv + 414 p.
  15. Jackson P. (ed. & trans.), Morgan D. (ed.). The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck: His Journey to the Court of the Great Khan Möngke, 1253–1255. London, Hakluyt Society 1990. xv + 312 p.
  16. Liščák V. Marco Polo and Yunnan. The Thai-Yunnan Project Newsletter (Canberra), 1992, 17, pp. 20–25.
  17. Marco Polo. Il Milione. Le devisement dou monde, texte franco-venetien (proche de l’original). Il manoscritto della Bibliothèque nationale de France Fr. 1116, I. Testo, a cura di Mario Eusebi, Roma-Padova, Antenore, 2010 («Biblioteca veneta. Poliana. Documenti per l’edizione integrale di Marco Polo», 1). Edizione digitale a cura di Mario Eusebi. Marcatura digitale a cura di Luigi Tessarolo. Available at: <http://www.rialfri.eu /rialfriPHP/public/testo/testo/codice/milione.html> (In Franco-Italian)
  18. Marco Polo. The Description of the World. Translated, with an Introduction and Annotations, by Sharon Kinoshita. Indianapolis/Cambridge, Hackett Publishing, Inc. 2016. xxxi + 238 p.
  19. Rockhill W.W. (ed. & trans.). The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253–1255. London, Hayklut Society, 1900. 376 p.
  20. Sbaralea J.H. [Sbaraglia G.G.], Eubel K. Bullarium Franciscanum, sive, Romanorum pontificum: constitutiones, epistolae, diplomata tribus ordinibus Minorum, Clarissarum, Poenitentium a seraphico patriarcha Sancto Francisco institutis ab eorum originibus ad nostra usque tempora concessa, Tomus V, Benedicti XI, Clementis V, Ioannis XXII Monumenta… Romae, Typis Vaticanis, 1898. xlii + 643 p. (In Latin)
  21. Sella P. Il vangelo in Oriente: Giovanni da Montecorvino, frate minore e primo Vescovo in terra di Cina (1307–1328). Assisi, Edizioni Porziuncola, 2008. 150 p. (In Italian)
  22. Sella P. Aspetti storici della missione di Giovanni da Montecorvino nel Cathay. Antonianum 77 (2002), pp. 475–502. Available at: <http://laveja.blogspot.tw/2011/02 /aspetti-storici-della-missione-di.html> (In Italian)
  23. Waddingus L., F.M. Annales Minorum seu Trium Ordinum a S. Francisco Institutorum auctore A. R. P. Luca Waddingo Hiberno S. T. Lectore Jubilato, & Ordinis Chronologo. Tomus Septimus. Editio secunda, locupletior, & accuratior opera, et studio R.mi P. Josephi Mariæ Fonseca ab Ebora S. T. Lect. Jubilati, S. & U. Inquisitionis Consultoris, S. C. Consistor. Votantis, Episcop. Examinatoris, & Ord. Min. in Cismont. Familia Commiss. Generalis. Romæ: Typis Rochi Bernabò, 1733. Superiorum permissu. Cum privilegio Summi Pontificis. 632 p. (In Italian)
  24. Willeke B.H. Did Catholicism in the Yuan Dynasty Survive until the Present? Tripod 47, 1988, pp. 64–70.
  25. Yule H., Cordier H. (eds. & trans.). Cathay and the Way Thither being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Translated and edited by Colonel Sir Henry Yule, R. E., C. B., K. C. S. I. Corr. Inst. France. With a preliminary essay on the intercourse between China and the Western nations previous to the discovery of the Cape route. New edition, revised throughout in the light of recent discoveries by Henri Cordier, D. Litt., Hon. M. R. A. S., Hon. Cor. M. R. G. S., Hon. F. R. S. L., member of the Institute de France, professor at the École des Langues orientales vivantes, Paris. I–IV. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society.
  26. Yule H., Cordier H. (eds. & trans.). John de’ Marignolli and his recollections of eastern travel. Biographical and introductory notices. Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. III. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1914, pp. 177–208.
  27. Yule H., Cordier H. (eds. & trans.). Letters and reports of missionary friars. No. I. First letter of John of Montecorvino. Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. III. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1914, pp. 45–51.
  28. Yule H., Cordier H. (eds. & trans.). Letters and reports of missionary friars. No. VIII. The book of the estate of the Great Caan, set forth by the Archbishop of Soltania, circa 1330. Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. III. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1914, pp. 89–103.
  29. Yule, Henry; Cordier, Henri, (eds. & trans.). “Preliminary essay.” Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. I. London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society MDCCCCXV.
  30. Yule H., Cordier H. (eds. & trans.). Recollections of travel in the East, by John de Marignolli, Papal Legate to the court of the Great Khan and afterwards Bishop of Bisignano. Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. III. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1914, pp. 209–269.
  31. Yule H., Cordier H. (eds. & trans.). The Eastern Parts of the World Described, by Friar Odoric the Bohemian, of Friuli, in the Province of Saint Anthony. Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. II. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1913, pp. 97–277.
  32. Yule H., Cordier H. (eds. & trans.). Latin text of Odoric, from a MS. in the Bibliothèque Impériale. Descriptio Orientalium Descriptio orientalium partium fratris Odorici Boemi de Foro Julii provinciæ Sancti Antonii. Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Vol. II. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1913, pp. 278–336. (In Latin)

About the author: Vladimír Liščák – Ph.D. (Ethnography), Research Fellow, Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences (Pod Vodárenskou věží 4, 18208 Praha 8-Libeň, Czechia); MOFA Taiwan Fellowship Visiting Scholar, Researcher ID: E-1717-2014 (Center for Chinese Studies, National Central Library, No. 20, Zhongshan S. Rd., Taipei, Taiwan 100-01 R.O.C.). E-mail: vliscak@gmail.com

Received  February 20, 2017   Accepted for publication  May 2, 2017
Published online  June 30, 2017